), built by Sultan Izz al-Din Kayka'us ( 1 2 1 9) and the Krkgz Han (c. 1240), possibly the work of Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II. The third type of caravanserai joins the covered hall of the first type with the arcaded court of the second. The most notable examples are a pair of buildings, both known as Sultan Han, built by Sultan 'Ala' al-Din Kayqubad I, one at Tuzhisar on the Konya-Aksaray road ( 1 2 2 9 ), the other on the Kayseri-Sivas road ( 1 2 3 6 1 2 3 7 ), and the Karatay Han (c. 1 2 3 1 1 2 4 0 ), built by the atabeg (a title given to the tutors of Seljuq princes) Jalal al-Din Qaratai on the Kayseri-Malatya road (Figure 13.4). All three have a vaguely military appearance, with high stone walls lacking windows and featuring engaged half-round towers at regular intervals, magnificently carved pishtaqs, courtyard surrounded by guest rooms, baths, storerooms and stables, and small mosques.

20 m FIGURE 13.4 Plan, Karatay Han with arcaded open court and covered stable, KayseriMalatya road, 1 2 3 1 1 2 4 0. Source: Howard Crane. Reproduced with permission. 342

Howard Crane and Lorenz Korn Other types of secular structures include fortresses, baths, and palaces. The former are attested or survive in more or less fragmentary condition at Alanya, Kayseri, Bayburt, Divrii, Antalya, Ankara, and Konya. As to the latter, only a small portion (dating to the late twelfth century) of the Seljuq palace in Konya survives. However, there remain more extensive portions of a pair of summer palaces built by Ala' al-Din Kayqubad I: Kaykubadiye near Kayseri; and Kubadabad, on Lake Beyehir, incorporating 16 modest structures, including a pair of tiled residential buildings, enclosed within a fortified wall (see Redford 1993a). Heavily decorated with both underglaze and mina'i tiles, the latter was possibly executed by craftsmen brought from Kashan in Iran, then the center of production for such ceramics. Syria and al-Jazira

Bilad al-Sham (Syria) and al-Jazira (northern Mesopotamia) were both conquered by the Seljuq sultans during the second half of the eleventh century and then divided between members of the Seljuq family and other dynasties who acted as local rulers. In al-Jazira, the Turkish dynasty of the Artuqids soon became an important political power, with Hisn Kaifa (Hasankeyf), Mayyafariqin (Silvan), Kharput (Harput), and Amid (Diyarbakr) as their centers. The Crusader conquest of the Levant and attacks on other parts of Syria and al-Jazira shattered Seljuq control over these areas. After one generation, a Muslim counter-movement began to gain momentum. The atabey Zangi bin Aqsunqur reconquered the city of Edessa (al-Ruha, now Urfa in Turkey) in 1 1 4 4, and his successor Nur al-Din managed to gather the forces of all Syria for his attacks against the Crusaders. The image of the Zangid ruler as champion of Islam and leader of the jihad can be read from building inscriptions in which royal titles